Implementation toolsReuse and RechargeHardwareReuse of Blackwater and Greywater in AgricultureAquaculture (Animals) 
Aquaculture (Animals)
- Compiled by:
- Robert Gensch (Xavier University), Niels Sacher (Xavier University)
- Adapted from:
- TILLEY, E.; LUETHI, C.; MOREL, A.; ZURBRUEGG, C.; SCHERTENLEIB, R. (2008)
Executive Summary
Aquaculture in general refers to the controlled cultivation of aquatic plants and animals by making use of wastewater as a nutrient source for plants and fish. The focus of this technology sheet will be on fish raising only while the cultivation of plants will be addressed in a separate factsheet. Fish can be grown in ponds where they feed on algae and other organisms that grow in the nutrient-rich water. Through feeding, the nutrients from the wastewater are removed and the fish are eventually harvested for consumption.
| In | Out |
|---|---|
| Blackwater, Faecal Sludge, Greywater, Brownwater, Fertigation Water |
Three kinds of aquaculture designs for raising fish exist: (1) fertilisation of fish ponds with excreta/faecal sludge; (2) fertilisation of fish ponds with effluents; and (3) fish grown directly in aerobic ponds (see also waste stabilisation pond systems or aerated ponds. A well functioning fish point requires both, sufficient nutrients for the organisms at all levels and sufficient oxygen for fish to grow. When introducing nutrients in the form of effluent or sludge it is important to limit the additions so that aerobic conditions are maintained. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) should not exceed 1 g/m2 per day and oxygen should be at least 4 mg/L. Fish introduced to aerobic ponds can effectively reduce algae and help control mosquito populations. But if the ponds are over-fertilised, this increases the growth of phytoplankton and algae and their eventual degradation drastically reduces the levels of oxygen in the water leading to death of fish or other organisms.
Functional design of an aquaculture pond. Source: TILLEY et al. (2008)
A large part of the organic contamination contained in the used water source is consumed by the present organisms of all ranges. However, the fish ponds themselves do not dramatically improve the microbial quality or the water. Especially Helminth eggs can survive over many months or years in water and some faecal indicator bacteria (e.g. Salmonella and E. coli) have been shown to survive and reproduce in the guts of tilapia and carp grown in waste-fed ponds (WHO 2006). But in case where bacteria and viruses have been detected in edible fish raised, in waste-fed aquacultures the concentrations are generally extremely low (WHO 2006) and because of their economic value the produced fishes can offset the costs of operating a treatment facility. Under ideal operating conditions, up to 10,000 kg/ha of fish can be harvested. If the fish are not acceptable for human consumption, they can be a valuable source of protein for other high-valuable carnivores (like shrimps) or converted into fishmeal for pigs and chickens. The fish need to be harvested when they reach an appropriate age/size. Sometimes after harvesting, the pond should be drained so that it can be (a) desludged; and (b) left to dry in the sun for 1 to 2 weeks to destroy any pathogens living on the bottom or sides of the pond.
Wastewater fed aquaculture in Lima, Peru. Source: EDWARDS P. (2008)
Where there is no other source of readily available protein, this technology may be embraced. The quality and condition of the fish will also influence local acceptance. As the microbial flora of a fish reflects the one from the water it was taken, (e.g. in the digestive tract, on the skin or in the fluids of the body cavities), there may be concern with contamination of the fish, especially during the harvesting, cleaning and preparation of the fish. If it is cooked well it should be safe, but it is advisable to move the fish to a clear-water pond for several weeks before they are harvested for consumption.
Applicability
A fish pond is only appropriate when there is a sufficient amount of land (or a pre-existing pond), a source of fresh water and a suitable climate. The water that is used to dilute the waste should not be too warm, and the ammonia levels should be kept low or negligible. Only fish that are tolerant of low dissolved oxygen levels and high ammonia contents should be chosen. They should not be carnivores and they should be tolerant to diseases and adverse environmental conditions. Different varieties of carp, milkfish and tilapia have been successful, but the specific choice will depend on local preference and suitability. This technology is only appropriate for warm or tropical climates with no freezing temperatures, and preferably with high rainfall and minimal evaporation.
Advantages
- Can provide a cheap, locally available protein source
- Low to moderate capital cost; operating costs should be offset by production revenue
- Potential for local job creation and income generation
- Can be built and maintained with locally available materials
Disadvantages
- Fish may pose a health risk if improperly prepared or cooked
- Requires abundance of fresh water
- Requires large land (pond) area
- May require expert design and installation
References 
TILLEY, E.; LUETHI, C.; MOREL, A.; ZURBRUEGG, C.; SCHERTENLEIB, R. (2008): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. Duebendorf and Geneva: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). URL [Accessed: 15.02.2010]. PDF
EDWARDS, P. (2008): Volume III: Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture.. (pdf presentation). Bangkok, Thailand: Asian Institute of Technology. PDF
WHO (Editor) (2006): Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater excreta and greywater. Volume III. Wastewater and Excreta Use in Aquaculture. Geneva: World Health Organisation. URL [Accessed: 26.02.2010]. PDF
Further Readings
EDWARDS, P. ; Asian Institute of Technology (Editor) (2008): Key Issues in the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in Aquaculture. (pdf presentation). Bangkok, Thailand: World Toilet Organisation. URL [Accessed: 19.02.2010]. PDF
This document is a guidance note for program managers and engineers that summarises the key issues of the 3. Volume of the WHO Guidelines that focuses on the safe use of wastewater and excreta in aquaculture.
WHO (Editor) (2006): Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater excreta and greywater. Volume III. Wastewater and Excreta Use in Aquaculture. Geneva: World Health Organisation. URL [Accessed: 26.02.2010]. PDF
Volume III of the Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater deals with wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture and describes the present state of knowledge regarding the impact of wastewater-fed aquaculture on the health of producers, product consumers and local communities. It assesses the associated health risks and provides an integrated preventive management framework.
JUNGE-BERBEROVIC, R.; University of Applied Sciences Waedenswil. (Editor) (2001): Possibilities and Limits of Wastewater-fed Aquaculture. . Waedenswil: University of Applied Sciences Waedenswil. URL [Accessed: 19.02.2010]. PDF
At the University of Applied Sciences Waedenswil, Switzerland, wastewater-fed aquaculture is a research focus since 1993. This paper summarises some of the results and insights gained since then.
STRAUSS, M. (n.y.): Health (Pathogen) Considerations Regarding the Use of Human Waste in Aquaculture. (pdf presentation). Switzerland: Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology. PDF
This study reviews the potential health risks and current epidemiological evidence for actual risks from pathogen transmission through wastewater aquaculture.
.jpg){kind=icon}
TILLEY, E.; LUETHI, C.; MOREL, A.; ZURBRUEGG, C.; SCHERTENLEIB, R. (2008): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. Duebendorf and Geneva: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG). URL [Accessed: 15.02.2010]. PDF
This compendium gives a systematic overview on different sanitation systems and technologies and describes a wide range of available low-cost sanitation technologies.
VARON, M. P.; MARA, D. D. (2004): Waste Stabilisation Ponds. (pdf presentation). Delft: International Water and Sanitation Centre . URL [Accessed: 17.05.2012]. PDF
This document provides information and instructions on waste stabilisation ponds. Various case studies are mentioned, e.g. the wastewater-fed fishponds in Calcutta in India.
MARA, D.D. (2004): Wastewater Re-use in Aquaculture. In: Domestic Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries, 252-261. URL [Accessed: 17.02.2011].
This chapter gives a comprehensive overview on what is aquaculture, including some examples and elements useful for dimensioning.
PESCOD, M.B. (1992): Wastewater Treatment and Use in Agriculture. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO). URL [Accessed: 25.10.2011].
This Irrigation and Drainage Paper is intended to provide guidance to national planners and decision-makers, agricultural and municipal managers, field engineers and scientists, health and agricultural field workers, wastewater treatment plant operators and farmers. Consequently, it covers a broad range of relevant material, some in considerable depth but some more superficially. It is meant to encourage the collection, treatment and use of wastewater in agriculture in a safe manner, with maximum advantage taken of this resource. Informal, unplanned and unorganized wastewater use is not recommended, nor is it considered adviseable from the health or agricultural points of view.
Case Studies
DALSGAARD, A. (1996): Wastewater-fed Aquaculture in Viet Nam.. (pdf presentation). Viet Nam : Mekong Fisheries Network Newsletter. PDF
Case study on wastewater-fed aquaculture in Vietnam.
NANDEESHA, M.C. (2002): Sewage Fed Aquaculture Systems of Kolkata. A Century-old Innovation of Farmers. In: Aquaculture Asia 7, 28-32. URL [Accessed: 19.04.2010]. PDF
Case Study on the fishponds in sewage-fed lagoons in Kolkata.
RAYCHAUDHURI, S.; MISHRA, M.; SALODKAR, S.; SUDARSHAN, M.; THAKUR, A. R. (2008): Traditional Aquaculture Practice at East Calcutta Wetland. The Safety Assessment.. (pdf presentation). Calcutta: American Journal of Environmental Sciences. URL [Accessed: 22.02.2010]. PDF
Case study on the traditional aquaculture practise at the East Kolkata Wetlands, India with special focus on the risk assessment in fish cultivation and subsequent consumption in terms of metal accumulation in the fish.
MUKHERJEE, M. (2003): Waste-Fed Fisheries in Periurban Kolkata.. (pdf presentation). Kolkata: Dept. of Fisheries. URL [Accessed: 22.02.2010]. PDF
Case study of the perhaps largest wastewater fed aquaculture system in the world in the periurban area of Kolkata.
Training Material
EDWARDS, P. (2008): Volume III: Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture.. (pdf presentation). Bangkok, Thailand: Asian Institute of Technology. PDF
This presentation gives a detailed overview on the 3. volume of the WHO guidelines on the safe use of wastewater and excreta in aquaculture including many pictures of existing wastewater-fed aquaculture and fish pond technologies all over the world. Apart from the health risk and appropriate health protection measures, a lot of information on socio-cultural, environmental and economic aspects is given as well as supporting information on planning and implementation of sewage-fed fish ponds.
Important Weblinks
http://www.akvo.org/wiki/index.php/Aquaculture_Ponds
The sanitation portal of Akvopedia offers state of the art information on several sanitation technologies including the wastewater-fed aquaculture.
http://www.enaca.org/ [Accessed: 09.02.2010]
The official homepage of Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific provides up to date information on ecological, economic and technological aspects of aquaculture. Many open source documents (manuals, reports, case studies etc.) are available here.
http://www.unep.or.jp/ [Accessed: 09.02.2010]
The UNEP homepage provides an international source book on environmentally sound technologies for wastewater and storm water management including a chapter on aquaculture.
http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0551e/t0551e09.htm [Accessed: 09.02.2010]
The FAO homepage provides an online document on wastewater treatment and use in agriculture with an extra chapter on wastewater use in aquaculture. Various economical, ecological, technical and biological aspects are explained.
http://www.ruaf.org/ [Accessed: 09.02.2010]
Website of the Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture & Food Society, including many articles on urban and peri-urban agriculture and aquaculture. The Urban Agriculture Magazine, which can be accessed from the same site, is available in English, Spanish, French, Arabic, Chinese, Portuguese, and Turkish.